* [1:1] Uz: somewhere in Edom or Arabia; see Lam 4:21. Job: the name probably means “Where is the (divine) father?” In Hebrew it is almost a homonym with the word for “enemy” (see note on 13:24; cf. 33:10).

* [1:3] The East: that is, east of Palestine.

* [1:5] Cursed: lit., “blessed.” So also in v. 11; 2:5, 9.

* [1:6] Sons of God: members of the divine council; see Gn 6:1–4; Dt 32:8; Ps 82:1. The satan: lit., “adversary” (as in 1 Kgs 11:14). Here a member of the heavenly court, “the accuser” (Zec 3:1). In later biblical traditions this character will be developed as the devil (Gk. diabolos, “adversary”).

* [1:15] Sabeans: from southern Arabia.

* [1:17] Chaldeans: from southern Mesopotamia; in the mid-first millennium B.C., synonymous with “Babylonians.”

* [1:21] Go back there: to the earth; cf. Gn 2:7; see note on Sir 40:1.

* [2:4] Skin for skin: a proverbial expression derived perhaps from bartering; the precise meaning is unclear.

* [2:9] Curse God and die: the presupposition is that such blasphemy would be met with immediate death.

* [2:11] Teman: in Edom (see Gn 36:9–11). The Temanites (Jer 49:7; cf. Ob 8) enjoyed a reputation for wisdom. Shuh and Naamath: locations unknown.

* [3:1] His day: that is, the day of his birth.

* [3:4] God: in Heb. ’Eloah, another name for the divinity, used frequently in Job.

* [3:5] Blackness of day: that is, an eclipse.

* [3:8] Leviathan: a mythological sea monster symbolizing primeval chaos. It is parallel to Sea, which was the opponent of Baal in the Ugaritic legends. Cf. 9:13; 26:13; 40:25–41:26; Ps 74:13–14; 104:26; Is 27:1.

* [3:17] There: in death.

* [3:23] Hemmed in: contrast the same verb as used in 1:10.

* [4:10] The lion: used figuratively here for the violent, rapacious sinner who cannot prevail against God.

* [4:12–21] A dramatic presentation of the idea of human nothingness in contrast to God’s greatness (v. 17). The message of the “private revelation” that stirs Eliphaz so deeply is in reality expressed countless times in the Bible. The statements of the friends are often “truths” that are insensitive or irrelevant to Job’s questioning.

* [5:1] Holy ones: members of the heavenly court; cf. 1:6 and note. They were viewed as heavenly intercessors.

* [5:4] At the gate: of the city, where justice was administered.

* [5:7] Sparks: in Hebrew, “sons of resheph,” which the ancient versions took as the name of a bird. Resheph was an underworld deity of plague, but the word also means “flames” in Sg 8:6.

* [5:9] Perhaps to be omitted here; it is a duplicate of 9:10.

* [5:15] From the sword of their mouth: the Hebrew is obscure.

* [5:17] Almighty: standard translation of Heb. Shaddai.

* [5:19] Six…the seventh: proverbial expression for any large number; cf. Prv 24:16; Lk 17:4.

* [6:5–6] Job would not complain if his life were as pleasant to him as fodder to a hungry animal; but his life is as disagreeable as insipid food. White of an egg: thus the obscure Hebrew has been understood in Jewish tradition; some render it “mallow juice.”

* [6:19] Tema: in northwest Arabia. Sheba: home of the Sabeans; see note on 1:15.

* [6:21] It is only at this point that the previous lines (vv. 1–20) are clearly directed to the three friends. The style of replying in these chapters (3–31) is often indirect. Job and the friends become mouthpieces through which the author presents current views on divine retribution in dramatic fashion. In chap. 7, Job will not even speak directly to the friends.

* [7:1] Drudgery: taken by some to refer to military service; cf. also 14:14.

* [7:12–21] Job now speaks not to his friends (who never speak to God), but to God. He does this frequently; cf. 9:28; 10:2–22; 13:20–28; 14:13–22.

* [7:12] An allusion to the personification of primeval chaos as a monstrous ocean vanquished by God; see note on 3:8.

* [7:15] Existence: lit., bones; the Hebrew is unclear.

* [7:17–18] An ironic allusion to Ps 8:5.

* [8:11–13] As marsh plants need water, so human beings need God. These verses may be a quotation from the teaching of the ancestors; cf. v. 10.

* [9:3] Job begins to explore the possibility of challenging God in a lawsuit, a theme that will recur (10:2), but he knows the odds are against him (vv. 12–20).

* [9:13] Rahab: another name for the primeval sea-monster; see notes on 3:8 and Ps 89:11; cf. Jb 7:12; 26:12.

* [9:28–31] You: refers to God.

* [10:1] I loathe my life: these words complete the thought of 9:35.

* [10:3–12] These lines are a delicate mixture of sarcasm and prayer; Job “reminds” God, challenging the divine providence. Note the piteous tone of the final request in vv. 20–22.

* [10:17] Attack: or “witnesses,” continuing the metaphor of lawsuit used in these chapters.

* [11:5] This is another of many ironies (e.g., cf. 11:16–19) that occur throughout the book. Zophar does not know that God will speak (chaps. 38–42), but contrary to what he thinks.

* [11:12] A colt…is born human: the Hebrew is obscure. As translated, it seems to be a proverb referring to an impossible event.

* [12:1] Job begins his third and longest speech to the friends with sarcasm, and eventually he accuses them of falsehood (13:4–11). The dialogue between them becomes increasingly sharp. With the appeal to learning from beasts and birds (12:7), Job launches into what seems to be a bitter parody of the power of God.

* [12:4–5] The Hebrew is somewhat obscure, but the general sense is that the wicked mock the pious when the latter appear to be abandoned by God; cf. Ps 22:7–9; Mt 27:39–43.

* [12:6] Whom God has in his power: the Hebrew is obscure. The line may be a scribal error; some of the phrases occur in vv. 9, 10.

* [12:18] He reduces kings to the condition of slaves, who wear only a cloth wrapped about the waist.

* [13:14] The second half of the verse is a common biblical expression for risking one’s life; cf. Jgs 12:3; 1 Sm 19:5; 28:21; Ps 119:109; the first half of the verse must have a similar meaning. Job is so confident of his innocence that he is willing to risk his life by going to judgment with God.

* [13:15] Many translations adopt the Ketib reading, “I have no hope.”

* [13:20] In 13:20–14:22, Job directs his address to God; cf. 7:8–21; 9:28–10:22. His three friends never do this.

* [13:24] The Hebrew word for “enemy” (‘oyeb) is very close to the Hebrew form of Job’s name (‘iyyob). The play on the word implies that God has confused the two.

* [14:1] The sorrowful lament of Job is that God should relent in view of the limited life of human beings. When compared to plant life, which dies but can revive, the death of human beings is final. Job’s wild and “unthinkable” wish in vv. 13–17 is a bold stroke of imagination and desire: if only in Sheol he were protected till God would remember him! Were he to live again (v. 14), things would be different, but alas, God destroys “the hope of mortals” (v. 19).

* [14:17] Sealed up in a pouch: hidden away and forgotten.

* [15:1] The tone of Eliphaz’s speech is now much rougher. In vv. 7–9 he ridicules Job’s knowledge with a sarcastic question about whether he was a member of the divine council before creation and thus had unique wisdom (according to Prv 8:22–31, only Woman Wisdom existed before creation). Verses 20–35 are a typical description of the fate of the wicked.

* [15:31] The translation is uncertain.

* [15:35] The plans of the wicked yield nothing but futile results. Cf. Ps 7:15; Is 59:4.

* [16:8] You: God. Job then describes in vv. 9–17 the savage treatment that he has received from God.

* [16:18] As the exposed blood of those who were unjustly slain cries to heaven for vengeance (Gn 4:10; Ez 24:6–9), so Job’s sufferings demand redress.

* [16:19] Witness: refers perhaps to God (is Job appealing to God against God?), or to a mediator (cf. 9:33), or to a personification of Job’s prayer.

* [17:3] Addressed to God; v. 10 to Job’s friends.

* [17:13–16] Job elaborates another of the vivid descriptions of “life” in Sheol; cf. 3:13–23; 10:21–22.

* [18:13] Firstborn of Death: that is, disease, plague.

* [18:14] The king of terrors: of Sheol, of Death (cf. the “terrors” in v. 11). However, the Hebrew of this verse is obscure.

* [19:1] Job continues railing against his friends (vv. 2–5), and describing God’s savage attack in words reminiscent of 16:9–17.

* [19:20] Skin of my teeth: although the metaphor is not clear, this has become a proverbial expression for a narrow escape. It does not fit Job’s situation here.

* [19:23–24] What Job is about to say is so important that he wants it recorded in a permanent manner.

* [19:25–27] The meaning of this passage is obscure because the original text has been poorly preserved and the ancient versions do not agree among themselves. Job asserts three times that he shall see a future vindicator (Hebrew goel), but he leaves the time and manner of this vindication undefined. The Vulgate translation has Job indicating a belief in resurrection after death, but the Hebrew and the other ancient versions are less specific.

* [20:17] Oil: olive oil, one of the main agricultural products of ancient Palestine, a land proverbially rich in honey and milk; see Ex 3:8; etc.

* [20:29] Zophar ends his lecture in the style of Bildad (cf. 18:19) with a summary appraisal of what he has been saying about the fate of the wicked.

* [21:7] In vv. 7–29 Job launches into a realistic description of the fate of the wicked, contrary to the claims made by the friends.

* [21:22] Those on high: the heavenly beings; cf. 1:6; Ps 82:1–8.

* [22:1–27:23] The traditional three cycles of speeches breaks down in chaps. 22–27, because Zophar does not appear. This may be interpreted as a sign that the three friends see no point in further dialogue, or that Job’s replies have reduced them to silence, or that there has been a mistake in the transmission of the text (hence various transferrals of verses have been proposed to include Zophar, but without any textual evidence).

* [22:3] Another irony: God will “gain,” because he will have been proved right in his claim to the satan that Job is “perfect.”

* [22:6–9] This criticism of Job by Eliphaz is untrue (cf. 31:19), but he is driven to it by his belief that God always acts justly, even when he causes someone to suffer; suffering is due to wrongdoing (cf. v. 29).

* [22:18] The second part of the verse repeats 21:16.

* [22:19] Them: the wicked. Eliphaz obviously thinks that the just can be pleased by God’s punishment of the wicked. Such pleasure at the downfall of the wicked is expressed elsewhere, e.g., Ps 58:11; 63:12.

* [22:24] Ophir: see note on Ps 45:10.

* [23:8] Job’s confident desire to confront God (vv. 2–7, contrary to his fears in 9:14–20 and 13:21–27) gives way to his dark night: God’s absence (vv. 8–9), which also terrifies (vv. 13–17).

* [24:1] After his failure to find God, Job takes up the question: Why does God not favor his friends by the speedy punishment of his enemies?

* [24:9] This verse continues the description of the plight of the poor in vv. 2–4, and may belong there.

* [24:10] This verse is a variant of v. 7, and may be an erroneous scribal repetition.

* [24:18–24] These verses are inconsistent with Job’s views elsewhere. Moreover, they are in general poorly preserved, and in some cases obscure.

* [24:22] He: God.

* [25:1] At this point any structure in the dialogues disappears. Bildad’s speech is very short, and there follow two speeches attributed to Job, with significantly different introductions in 27:1 and 29:1, and with no intervening third speech of Zophar.

* [25:3] His troops: the heavenly host, or army, the stars (cf. Jgs 5:20), later understood as angels.

* [26:1–14] Perhaps to be read as Job’s reply to Bildad’s short speech.

* [26:5] Shades: the dead in Sheol, the nether world; cf. Ps 88:11; Is 26:14.

* [26:6] Sheol: cf. note on Ps 6:6. Abaddon: Hebrew for “(place of) destruction,” a synonym for nether world; cf. Jb 28:22; Rev 9:11.

* [26:7] Zaphon: lit., “the north,” used here as a synonym for the firmament, the heavens; cf. Is 14:13.

* [26:10] Circle: the horizon of the ocean which serves as the boundary for the activity of light and darkness; cf. Prv 8:27.

* [26:12] Rahab: another name for the primeval sea-monster; see notes on Jb 3:8 and Ps 89:11; cf. also Jb 7:12; 9:13.

* [26:13] The fleeing serpent: the same term occurs in Is 27:1 in apposition to Leviathan; see note on Jb 3:8.

* [27:2–6] As God lives…far be it: Job affirms two oaths about his innocence by the very God whom he has accused of violating his right. Such is the paradoxical situation of a tortured person who cannot give the lie to his personal justice, but also refuses to renounce God. He dares God to be “just” as he, Job, understands this.

* [27:7–23] These verses are inconsistent with Job’s views elsewhere, and may be part of a missing speech of Zophar; cf. notes on 24:18–24 and 25:1. Or possibly they are an ironic description of the fate of the three friends.

* [28:1–28] This chapter contains a beautifully vivid description of that Wisdom which is beyond the attainment of creatures and known only to God. The pronouns referring to Wisdom may be translated as either feminine or neuter; in view of Wisdom’s role as God’s companion and partner in creation (see Prv 8:22–30; Sir 24:1–21; Wis 9:9; Bar 3:9–4:4), the feminine is used here. There is no consensus about the authorship of this poem; it may originally have been an independent composition incorporated into the Book of Job.

* [28:3–4] The subject of the verbs in these verses has no clear antecedent; the context of vv. 2–6 suggests miners. The Hebrew of v. 4 is especially difficult. The general sense of vv. 1–11 is that one can find minerals in the earth; in contrast, where is Wisdom to be found (vv. 12, 20)?

* [28:16] Ophir: cf. note on Ps 45:10.

* [28:22] Abaddon: cf. note on Jb 26:6.

* [28:23–27] In reply to the question of vv. 12, 20, these verses indicate that the creator (vv. 24–26) knows the “place” of wisdom and even “established” her, but the specifics are not given. For further development of this theme, cf. Sir 1:1–10 and Bar 3:9–4:4.

* [28:28] This verse may be a later addition expressing a commonplace of the wisdom tradition; see cross-references. The addition seems to tie the poem in with the description of Job as fearing God and avoiding evil (1:1, 8; 2:3).

* [29:1] This chapter begins Job’s soliloquy, which will end in 31:40. He describes in florid and exaggerated terms his former lifestyle with all its blessings, a deliberate contrast to his current plight, which will be further described in chap. 30.

* [29:6] Hyperbole to express abundance; see note on 20:17.

* [29:18] Phoenix: a legendary bird which, after several centuries of life, consumed itself in fire, then rose from its ashes in youthful freshness.

* [30:4] Saltwort: found in salt marshes and very sour to the taste; eaten by the extremely poor as a cooked vegetable. Broom plant: the juniper or brushwood; cf. Ps 120:4; a figure of bitterness and poverty, because of its bitter-tasting roots which are practically inedible.

* [30:11] God is the subject of the verbs. Loosened my bowstring: i.e., disarmed and disabled me.

* [30:17–23] Job here refers to God’s harsh treatment of him. Cf. 16:9–17; 19:6–12.

* [31:5–34] In a series of purificatory oaths, Job protests his innocence.

* [31:12] Abaddon: see note on 26:6.

* [31:18] He: presumably God.

* [31:21] Gate: cf. notes on 5:4; Ru 4:1.

* [31:26–28] Light: of the sun. Job never sinned by worshiping the sun or the moon. Blow them a kiss: an act of idolatrous worship.

* [31:31] The members of his extended family will testify to his hospitality.

* [31:33–34] Job’s present protest is made, not in spite of hidden sins which he had been unwilling to disclose, but out of genuine innocence. All too human: can also be translated “like Adam.”

* [31:35–37] This concluding bravado fits better after v. 40a.

* [31:35] My signature: lit., “tau,” the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet, shaped like a cross. Job issues a subpoena to God, and challenges him to follow proper legal procedure as well.

* [31:36] On my shoulder: i.e., boldly, proudly.

* [31:37] Like a prince: not as a frightened criminal.

* [32:2] Elihu means “My God is he.” This speaker was from Buz, which, according to Jer 25:23, was near Tema and Dedan. A young man, he impetuously and impatiently upbraids Job for his boldness toward God, and the three friends for not successfully answering Job. He undertakes to defend God’s absolute justice and to explain more clearly why there is suffering. While fundamentally his position is the same as that of the three friends, he locates the place of suffering in the divine plan. Because Elihu’s four speeches (32:6–33:33; 34:2–37; 35:2–16; 36:2–37:24) repeat the substance of the earlier arguments of the three friends and also anticipate the content of the divine speeches (chaps. 39–41), many scholars consider them a later addition to the book.

* [32:13] Met wisdom: in Job’s arguments.

* [33:6] Pinched from clay: a reference to the tradition that human beings were made from clay; cf. Gn 2:7; Jb 10:9; Is 64:7.

* [33:10] Enemy: see note on 1:1; cf. 13:24.

* [33:14] Elihu asserts that God speaks through warning in dream and also through pain. However, his presupposition is that the restored person admits sinfulness (v. 27). This of course is not relevant to Job’s situation.

* [33:23] Divine messenger: or “angel,” one of the thousands who serve as mediators.

* [34:1] Elihu replies, although no one else has spoken. This connective phrase (see also 35:1 and 36:1) may indicate that these speeches of Elihu are a secondary addition to the book (see note on 32:2).

* [34:16] Now you: Elihu turns to Job and addresses him directly.

* [34:26, 29–30] The extant Hebrew text of these verses is obscure.

* [35:1] See note on 34:1.

* [35:4] A reply to you: Elihu refers to Job’s statement that the innocent suffer as much as the wicked, and especially to Eliphaz’s words in 22:2–3.

* [35:14–15] The text here is uncertain. It seems to indicate that Job should have realized God’s indifference is only apparent, and that, because he has not done so, God will punish him.

* [36:14] Life: a miserable life before death or a shadowy existence in Sheol. Reprobate: cf. Dt 23:18–19.

* [36:16–20] The Hebrew text here is obscure. Although each verse makes some sense, they do not constitute a logical sequence.

* [36:22–25] These verses serve as an introduction to the hymn about the divine marvels, 36:26–37:24, which in some respects anticipates the tone and content of the Lord’s speeches in chaps. 38–41.

* [36:29–31] The translation of these verses is uncertain.

* [37:2] Voice: the thunder.

* [37:12–13] The translation of these verses is uncertain.

* [37:18] The firmament…mirror: the ancients thought of the sky as a ceiling above which were the “upper waters” (cf. Gn 1:6–7; 7:11); when this ceiling became as hard as metal, the usual rain failed to fall on the earth (cf. Lv 26:19; Dt 28:23).

* [37:21] Elihu argues that even though God seems not to know our circumstances, he does know them, just as surely as the sun shines behind the clouds.

* [37:22] Zaphon: the mythical mountain of the gods; cf. note on 26:7.

* [37:24] The concluding remark of Elihu is ironic in view of the appearance of the Lord in the next chapter and Job’s claim in 42:5.

* [38:1] Now the Lord enters the debate and addresses two discourses (chaps. 38–39 and 40–41) to Job, speaking of divine wisdom and power. Such things are altogether beyond the capacity of Job. Out of the storm: frequently the background of the appearances of the Lord in the Old Testament; cf. Ps 18; 50; Na 1:3; Hb 3:2–15.

* [38:3] Gird up your loins: prepare for combat—figuratively, be ready to defend yourself in debate.

* [38:7] Sons of God: see note on 1:6.

* [38:21] Ironic, but not a harsh rebuke.

* [38:31–32] Pleiades…Orion…Bear: cf. 9:9. Mazzaroth: it is uncertain what astronomical group is meant by this Hebrew word; perhaps a southern constellation.

* [38:36] Ibis…rooster: the translation is uncertain.

* [39:13] The wings of the ostrich cannot raise her from the ground, but they help her to run swiftly.

* [39:14–16] People thought that, because the ostrich laid her eggs on the sand, she was thereby cruelly abandoning them; cf. Lam 4:3.

* [39:19–25] A classic description of a war horse.

* [40:4–5] Job’s first reaction is humble, but also seemingly cautious.

* [40:8–14] The issue is joined in these verses, and the Lord seems to challenge Job to play God and to bring down the proud and wicked.

* [40:15] Behemoth: a primeval monster of chaos; identified by some scholars as the hippopotamus, on which the description of Behemoth is partially based. The point of the Behemoth-Leviathan passages is that only the Lord, not Job, can control the cosmic evil which these forces symbolize.

* [40:24] Eyes…nose: the only exposed parts of the submerged beast.

* [40:25] Leviathan: although identified by some scholars as the crocodile, it is more likely another chaos monster; see note on 3:8.

* [40:30] Merchants: lit., “Canaanites,” whose reputation for trading was so widespread that their name came to be used for merchants; cf. Prv 31:24.

* [42:2–4] In his final speech, Job quotes God’s own words (see 38:2–3; 40:7).

* [42:5] In 19:25–27 Job had affirmed a hope to “see” (three times) his vindicator. Now he has seen the Lord about whom he had heard so much.

* [42:6] A difficult verse. Some doubt, in view of God’s commendation in v. 7, that Job does in fact express repentance, and alternative translations are often given. Along with v. 5, it describes a change in Job, which the encounter with the Lord has brought about. Dust and ashes: an ambiguous phrase. It can refer to the human condition (cf. Gn 18:27; Jb 30:19) or to Job’s ash heap (2:8).

* [42:7] The three friends of Job (Elihu is ignored in the epilogue) are criticized by the Lord because they had “not spoken rightly” (vv. 7–8).

* [42:8] An ironic touch: Job becomes the intercessor for his friends.

* [42:10] Twice: this is the fine for damage inflicted upon another; cf. Ex 22:3. The Lord pays up!

* [42:11] A piece of money: lit., qesitah, value unknown; also used in Gn 33:19; Jos 24:32. Gold ring: for the nose or ear.

* [42:14] Job’s daughters had names symbolic of their charms: Jemimah, dove; Keziah, precious perfume (cf. Ps 45:9); Keren-happuch, cosmetic jar—more precisely, a container for a black powder used like modern mascara.

* [42:15] Ordinarily daughters did not inherit property unless there were no sons; cf. Nm 27:1–11.